What Is Constructivism?

There is a lack of consensus about the meaning of constructivism (Harlow, Cummings, & Aberasturi, 2006 ). Strictly speaking, constructivism is not a theory but rather an epistemology , or philosophical explanation about the nature of learning (Hyslop-Margison & Strobel, 2008 ; Simpson, 2002 ). A theory is a scientifically valid explanation for learning ( Chapter 1 ). Theories allow for hypotheses to be generated and tested. Constructivism does not propound that learning principles exist and are to be discovered and tested, but rather that learners create their own learning. Readers who are interested in exploring the historical and philosophical roots of constructivism are referred to Bredo ( 1997 ) and Packer and Goicoechea ( 2000 ).

Nonetheless, constructivism makes general predictions that can be tested. Although these predictions are general and open to different interpretations (i.e., what does it mean that learners construct their own learning?), they can be the focus of research.

Constructivist theorists reject the notion that scientific truths exist and await discovery and verification. They argue that no statement can be assumed as true but rather should be viewed with reasonable doubt. The world can be mentally constructed in many different ways, so no theory has a lock on the truth. This is true even for constructivism: There are many varieties, and no one version should be assumed to be more correct than any other (Simpson, 2002 ).

Rather than viewing knowledge as truth, constructivists construe it as a working hypothesis. Knowledge is not imposed from outside people but rather formed inside them. A person’s constructions are true to that person but not necessarily to anyone else. This is because people produce knowledge based on their beliefs and experiences in situations (Cobb & Bowers, 1999 ), which differ from person to person. All knowledge, then, is subjective and personal and a product of our cognitions (Simpson, 2002 ). Learning is situated in contexts (Bredo, 2006 ).

Assumptions.

Constructivism highlights the interaction of persons and situations in the acquisition and refinement of skills and knowledge (Cobb & Bowers, 1999 ). Constructivism contrasts with conditioning theories that stress the influence of the environment on the person as well as with information processing theories that place the locus of learning within the mind with less attention to the context in which it occurs. Constructivism shares with social cognitive theory the assumption that persons, behaviors, and environments interact in reciprocal fashion (Bandura, 1986 , 1997 ).

A key assumption of constructivism is that people are active learners and develop knowledge for themselves (Simpson, 2002 ). To understand material well, learners must discover the basic principles, as the students in the opening vignette were striving to do. Constructivists differ in the extent to which they ascribe this function entirely to learners. Some believe that mental structures come to reflect reality, whereas others (radical constructivists) believe that the individual’s mental world is the only reality. Constructivists also differ in how much they ascribe the construction of knowledge to social interactions with teachers, peers, parents, and others (Bredo, 1997 ).

Many of the principles, concepts, and ideas discussed in this text reflect the idea of constructivism, including cognitive processing, expectations, values, and perceptions of self and others. Thus, although constructivism seems to be a recent arrival on the learning scene, its basic premise that learners construct understandings underlies many learning principles. This is the epistemological aspect of constructivism. Some constructivist ideas are not as well developed as those of other theories discussed in this text, but constructivism has affected theory and research in learning and development.

Constructivism also has influenced educational thinking about curriculum and instruction. It underlies the emphasis on the integrated curriculum in which students study a topic from multiple perspectives. For example, in studying hot-air balloons, students might read about them, write about them, learn new vocabulary words, visit one (hands-on experience), study the scientific principles involved, draw pictures of them, and learn songs about them. Constructivist ideas also are found in many professional standards and affect the design of curriculum and instruction, such as the learner-centered principles developed by the American Psychological Association (discussed later).

Another constructivist assumption is that teachers should not teach in the traditional sense of delivering instruction to a group of students. Rather, they should structure situations such that learners become actively involved with content through manipulation of materials and social interaction. How the teacher in the opening vignette structured the lesson allowed students to construct their understandings of what was happening. Activities include observing phenomena, collecting data, generating and testing hypotheses, and working collaboratively with others. Classes visit sites outside of the classroom. Teachers from different disciplines plan the curriculum together. Students are taught to be self-regulated learners by setting goals, monitoring and evaluating progress, and going beyond basic requirements by exploring interests (Bruning, Schraw, & Norby, 2011 ).

Perspectives