Development in Middle Adulthood

Development in Middle Adulthood

Development in Middle Adulthood

A principal dancer at the Grand Opera of Paris teaches a master class for young professional dancers, transferring knowledge, skill, and passion for his art to a new generation. In middle adulthood, expertise reaches its height.

chapter outline

·  PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

·   Physical Changes

·   Vision

·   Hearing

·  Skin

·   Muscle–Fat Makeup

·   Skeleton

·   Reproductive System

· ?  BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT  Anti-Aging Effects of Dietary Calorie Restriction

· ?  CULTURAL INFLUENCES  Menopause as a Biocultural Event

·   Health and Fitness

·   Sexuality

·   Illness and Disability

·   Hostility and Anger

·   Adapting to the Physical Challenges of Midlife

·   Stress Management

·   Exercise

·   An Optimistic Outlook

·   Gender and Aging: A Double Standard

·   COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Changes in Mental Abilities

·   Cohort Effects

·   Crystallized and Fluid Intelligence

·   Individual and Group Differences

·   Information Processing

·   Speed of Processing

·   Attention

·   Memory

·   Practical Problem Solving and Expertise

·   Creativity

·   Information Processing in Context

· ?  SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION  The Art of Acting Improves Memory in Older Adults

·   Vocational Life and Cognitive Development

·   Adult Learners: Becoming a Student in Midlife

·   Characteristics of Returning Students

·   Supporting Returning Students

ORDER NOW FOR AN ORIGINAL, PLAGIARISM-FREE, AND RESOURCEFUL PAPER

On a snowy December evening, Devin and Trisha sat down to read the holiday cards piled high on the kitchen counter. Devin’s 55th birthday had just passed; Trisha would turn 48 in a few weeks. During the past year, they had celebrated their 24th wedding anniversary. These milestones, along with the annual updates they received from friends, brought the changes of midlife into bold relief. Development in Middle Adulthood

Instead of new births, children starting school, or a first promotion at work, holiday cards and letters sounded new themes. Jewel’s recap of the past year reflected growing awareness of a finite lifespan, one in which time had become more precious. She wrote:

·  My mood has been lighter ever since my birthday. There was some burden I laid down by turning 49. My mother passed away when she was 48, so it all feels like a gift now. Blessed be!

George and Anya reported on their son’s graduation from law school and their daughter Michelle’s first year of university:

·  Anya is filling the gap created by the children’s departure by returning to college for a nursing degree. After enrolling this fall, she was surprised to find herself in the same psychology class as Michelle. At first, Anya worried about handling the academic work, but after a semester of success, she’s feeling more confident.

Tim’s message reflected continuing robust health, acceptance of physical changes, and a new burden: caring for aging parents—a firm reminder of the limits of the lifespan:

·  I used to be a good basketball player in college, but recently I noticed that my 20-year-old nephew, Brent, can dribble and shoot circles around me. It must be my age! But I ran our city marathon in September and came in seventh in the over-50 division. Brent ran, too, but he opted out a few miles short of the finish line to get some pizza while I pressed on. That must be my age, too! Development in Middle Adulthood.

The saddest news is that my dad had a bad stroke. His mind is clear, but his body is partially paralyzed. It’s really upsetting because he was getting to enjoy the computer I gave him, and it was so upbeat to talk with him about it in the months before the stroke.

Middle adulthood, which begins around age 40 and ends at about 65, is marked by narrowing life options and a shrinking future as children leave home and career paths become more determined. In other ways, middle age is hard to define because wide variations in attitudes and behaviors exist. Some individuals seem physically and mentally young at age 65—active and optimistic, with a sense of serenity and stability. Others feel old at age 40—as if their lives had peaked and were on a downhill course.

Another reason middle adulthood eludes definition is that it is a contemporary phenomenon. Before the twentieth century, only a brief interval separated the tasks of early adulthood from those of old age. Women were often widows by their mid-fifties, before their youngest child left home. And harsh living conditions led people to accept a ravaged body as a natural part of life. As life expectancy—and, with it, health and vigor—increased over the past century, adults became more aware of their own aging and mortality.

In this chapter, we trace physical and cognitive development in midlife. In both domains, we will encounter not just progressive declines but also sustained performance and compensating gains. As in earlier chapters, we will see that change occurs in manifold ways. Besides heredity and biological aging, our personal approach to passing years combines with family, community, and cultural contexts to affect the way we age.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Physical development in middle adulthood is a continuation of the gradual changes under way in early adulthood. Even the most vigorous adults notice an older body when looking in the mirror or at family photos. Hair grays and thins, new lines appear on the face, and a fuller, less youthful body shape is evident. During midlife, most individuals begin to experience life-threatening health episodes—if not in themselves, then in their partners and friends. And a change in time orientation, from “years since birth” to “years left to live,” adds to consciousness of aging (Neugarten,  1968b ). Development in Middle Adulthood.

These factors lead to a revised physical self-image, with somewhat less emphasis on hoped-for gains and more on feared declines (Bybee & Wells,  2003 ; Frazier, Barreto, & Newman,  2012 ). Prominent concerns of 40- to 65-year-olds include getting a fatal disease, being too ill to maintain independence, and losing mental capacities. Unfortunately, many middle-aged adults fail to embrace realistic alternatives—becoming more physically fit and developing into healthy, energetic older adults. Although certain aspects of aging cannot be controlled, people can do much to promote physical vigor and good health in midlife.

 Physical Changes

As she dressed for work one morning, Trisha remarked jokingly to Devin, “I think I’ll leave the dust on the mirror so I can’t see the wrinkles and gray hairs.” Catching sight of her image, she continued in a more serious tone. “And look at this fat—it just doesn’t want to go! I need to fit some regular exercise into my life.” In response, Devin glanced soberly at his own enlarged midriff.

At breakfast, Devin took his glasses on and off and squinted while reading the paper. “Trish—what’s the eye doctor’s phone number? I’ve got to get these bifocals adjusted again.” As they conversed between the kitchen and the adjoining den, Devin sometimes asked Trisha to repeat herself. And he kept turning up the radio and TV volume. “Does it need to be that loud?” Trisha would ask. Apparently Devin couldn’t hear as clearly as before.

In the following sections, we look closely at the major physical changes of midlife. As we do so, you may find it helpful to refer back to Table 13.1  on  page 435 , which provides a summary.

Vision

By the forties, difficulty reading small print is common, due to thickening of the lens combined with weakening of the muscle that enables the eye to accommodate (adjust its focus) to nearby objects. As new fibers appear on the surface of the lens, they compress older fibers toward the center, creating a thicker, denser, less pliable structure that eventually cannot be transformed at all. By age 50, the accommodative ability of the lens is one-sixth of what it was at age 20. Around age 60, the lens loses its capacity to adjust to objects at varying distances entirely, a condition called  presbyopia  (literally, “old eyes”). As the lens enlarges, the eye rapidly becomes more farsighted between ages 40 and 60 (Charman,  2008 ). Corrective lenses—or, for nearsighted people, bifocals—ease reading problems. Development in Middle Adulthood.

A second set of changes limits ability to see in dim light, which declines at twice the rate of daylight vision (Jackson & Owsley,  2000 ). Throughout adulthood, the size of the pupil shrinks and the lens yellows. In addition, starting at age 40, the vitreous (transparent gelatin-like substance that fills the eye) develops opaque areas, reducing the amount of light reaching the retina. Changes in the lens and vitreous also cause light to scatter within the eye, increasing sensitivity to glare. Devin had always enjoyed driving at night, but now he sometimes had trouble making out signs and moving objects (Owsley,  2011 ). And his vision was more disrupted by bright light sources, such as headlights of oncoming cars. Yellowing of the lens and increasing density of the vitreous also limit color discrimination, especially at the green–blue–violet end of the spectrum (Paramei,  2012 ). Occasionally, Devin had to ask whether his sport coat, tie, and socks matched.

Besides structural changes in the eye, neural changes in the visual system occur. Gradual loss of rods and cones (light- and color-receptor cells) in the retina and of neurons in the optic nerve (the pathway between the retina and the cerebral cortex) contributes to visual declines. By midlife, half the rods (which enable vision in dim light) are lost (Owsley,  2011 ). And because rods secrete substances necessary for survival of cones (which enable daylight and color vision), gradual loss of cones follows.

Middle-aged adults are at increased risk of  glaucoma , a disease in which poor fluid drainage leads to a buildup of pressure within the eye, damaging the optic nerve. Glaucoma affects nearly 2 percent of people over age 40, more often women than men. It typically progresses without noticeable symptoms and is a leading cause of blindness. Heredity contributes to glaucoma, which runs in families: Siblings of people with the disease have a tenfold increased risk, and it occurs three to four times as often in African Americans and Hispanics as in Caucasians (Guedes, Tsai, & Loewen,  2011 ; Kwon et al.,  2009 ). Starting in midlife, eye exams should include a glaucoma test. Drugs that promote release of fluid and surgery to open blocked drainage channels prevent vision loss. Development in Middle Adulthood.

Hearing

An estimated 14 percent of Americans between ages 45 and 64 suffer from hearing loss, often resulting from adult-onset hearing impairments (Center for Hearing and Communication,  2012 ). Although some conditions run in families and may be hereditary, most are age-related, a condition called  presbycusis (“old hearing”).

As we age, inner-ear structures that transform mechanical sound waves into neural impulses deteriorate through natural cell death or reduced blood supply caused by atherosclerosis. Processing of neural messages in the auditory cortex also declines. Age-related cognitive changes—in processing speed, attention, and memory—that we will take up shortly are also associated with hearing loss (Lin et al.,  2011 ). The first sign, around age 50, is a noticeable decline in sensitivity to high-frequency sounds, which gradually extends to all frequencies. Late in life, human speech becomes more difficult to make out, especially rapid speech and speech against a background of voices (Humes et al.,  2012 ). Still, throughout middle adulthood, most people hear reasonably well across a wide frequency range. And African tribal peoples display little age-related hearing loss (Jarvis & van Heerden,  1967 ; Rosen, Bergman, & Plester,  1962 ). These findings suggest factors other than biological aging are involved.

A worker uses a grinder to smooth a metal surface in a steel manufacturing facility. Men’s hearing declines more rapidly than women’s, a difference associated with several factors, including intense noise in some male-dominated occupations.

Men’s hearing tends to decline earlier and more rapidly than women’s, a difference associated with cigarette smoking, intense noise and chemical pollutants in some male-dominated occupations, and (at older ages) high blood pressure and cerebrovascular disease, or strokes that damage brain tissue (Heltzner et al.,  2005 ; Van Eyken, Van Camp, & Van Laer,  2007 ). Government regulations requiring industries to implement such safeguards as noise monitoring, provision of earplugs, pollution control, and regular hearing tests have greatly reduced hearing damage, but some employers do not comply fully (Daniell et al.,  2006 ; Ohlemiller,  2008 ). Development in Middle Adulthood.

Most middle-aged and elderly people with hearing difficulties benefit from sound amplification with hearing aids. When perception of the human voice is affected, speaking to the person patiently, clearly, and with good eye contact, in an environment with reduced background noise, aids understanding.