Assignment: Reading Psychology

Assignment: Reading Psychology

Assignment: Reading Psychology

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RESOLVING STRUGGLING READERS’ HOMEWORK DIFFICULTIES: A SOCIAL COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE HOWARD MARGOLIS Queens College of the City University of New York, Flushing, New York, USA PATRICK P. McCABE St. John’s University, Jamaica, New York, USA Struggling readers often fail to complete homework or complete it in a slipshod, haphazard fashion. Often, this adversely affects grades, erodes motivation for academics, and causes conflict between readers, parents, and school personnel. To help teachers and educational consultants (e.g., reading specialists, school psychologists) help struggling readers improve their homework submission rates and improve the quality of their homework, this article discusses reasons for homework problems and suggests how teachers and educational consultants can apply social cognitive theory to resolve homework problems. Unless people believe that they can produce desired effects by their ac- tions, they have little incentive to act. (Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, & Pastorelli, 1996, p. 1206) Ryan is a struggling reader in a fifth grade inclusion class at Hypothetical Elementary School. His general education teacher, Mrs. Piccolo, says that he is cooperative and intelligent, but is of- ten “lost” in class, confused by the work. When she and his in- class support teacher, Mrs. McCormick, provide him with “easy” or “moderately challenging” work, he correctly completes it; without such work and without in-class support, he dawdles and fidgets. Recently, Ryan complained to his teachers: “I hate homework. . . . It’s too hard. . . . I can’t read it. I’m dumb.” Ryan’s teachers complain that he rarely submits homework. When he does, it is disorganized and incorrect. To complicate matters, his teachers tell his parents that his homework habits are hurting his grades and progress. Frequently, Ryan argues with his parents about homework. This upsets them. They want to help him, but lack the time; their two younger children and extra jobs devour it. Thus, for Ryan, homework assignments are solitary tasks, tasks on which success depends upon his motivation and ability to independently complete them.

Ryan’s story, a composite of many, represents the difficulties faced by countless struggling readers for whom homework is la- borious, frustrating, and demoralizing (Bryan, Nelson, & Mathur, 1995). Consequently, many actively resist homework or carelessly rush through it, despite teacher and parent exhortations to try harder. This raises the critical question of how to help strug- gling readers like Ryan to routinely and successfully complete homework. To answer this question, we first discuss possible causes of struggling readers’ homework difficulties, as school personnel must address causes to resolve difficulties. Second, we discuss struggling readers’ beliefs, as beliefs strongly influence behavior and prospects for reversing homework difficulties. Third, because it can help to resolve homework difficulties, we discuss and illustrate principles derived from the instructional literature and from social cognitive theory. Possible Causes of Homework Difficulties Understanding the current causes of each reader’s difficulties can help to identify potential solutions. Common causes include the following: Difficult Assignments Homework is often too difficult for students with disabilities (Bryan, Burstein, & Bryan, 2001; Bryan & Nelson, 1994; Epstein et al., 1997; Salend & Gajria, 1995). Polloway, Foley, and Epstein (1992), for example, found that students with learning disabilities experienced more “substantial problems” with homework than their nondisabled peers (p. 206). Kay, Fitzgerald, Paradee, and Mellencamp (1994) found that homework problems often exas- perated parents of children with disabilities. Struggling Readers 227 Negative Attitudes Because of repeated failure, many struggling readers develop neg- ative attitudes toward reading (Chapman & Tunmer, 2003; Ganske, Monroe, & Strickland, 2003; Lipson & Wixson, 2003; Rasinski & Padak, 2000). Because homework usually involves reading, this at- titude may generalize to homework (Bryan & Nelson, 1994; Bryan et al., 1995; Good & Brophy, 2003; Nicholls, McKenzie, & Shufro, 1994; Warton, 2001). Gloomy Expectations and Learned Helplessness Many struggling readers expect that any reading task—including homework—condemns them to failure and frustration (Blanton & Blanton, 1994; Chapman & Tunmer, 2003; Pearl, Bryan, & Donahue, 1980, as cited in Bryan et al., 2001). Because they have low self-efficacy for reading—they believe they cannot success- fully read—they disengage (Butkowsky & Willows, 1980; Guthrie & Davis, 2003; Henk & Melnick, 1995; Walker, 2003). Many adopt a “learned helplessness” approach to challenge (Butkowsky & Willows, 1980; Gaffney, Methven, Bagdasarian, 2002; Gunning, 1998; Lipson & Wixson, 2003; McCormick, 2003; Prater, 2003; Rasinski & Padak, 2000), avoiding tasks like homework, tasks that require them to work independently (Gajria & Salend, 1995; Gunning, 1998). Given their gloomy expectations and learned helplessness, it is not surprising that such students often quit when homework becomes difficult (Gajria & Salend, 1995).